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What We Know about Access, Persistence, and Success for Adult Learners in Postsecondary Education: A Review of Contemporary Literature
Introduction
The history of adult learning in the United States is nearly as old as the nation itself, yet the adult learner only recently has moved to the forefront of research agendas in higher education. As scholars and policymakers seek to make sense of changing demographics, emerging labor force demands and shifting patterns of educational attainment, research on adult learners will become increasingly vital.
What We Know about Access, Persistence, and Success for Adult Learners in Postsecondary Education documents current research on adult learners in higher education.
Defining the adult learner in postsecondary education
While many scholars, practitioners and policymakers likely would claim an understanding of the term "adult learner," they might not share a common definition of that term. Many organizations established to support adult learners and promote adult postsecondary education use different definitions, and the diversity of their perspectives has added to the richness of research in this arena. Many U.S. institutions, associations, businesses, and colleges and universities have established programs to support an adult student population. As these programs evolve, the terms defining this population will continue to expand. However, given the increasing number of adults participating in formal and informal education in the United States, it will be important to more clearly define "adult learner" and delineate the programs that serve this essential cohort.
Voorhees and Lingenfelter (2003) offered one of the most encompassing definitions of the adult learner in postsecondary education: someone 25 years of age or older involved in postsecondary learning activities. The U.S. Department of Education defines the adult learner as anyone "engaged in some form of instruction or educational activity to acquire the knowledge, information, and skills necessary to succeed in the workforce, learn basic skills, earn credentials, or otherwise enrich their lives," (NCES, 1999).
A significant portion of adult learners also may be categorized as "nontraditional students," as defined by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2002). According to NCES, nontraditional students exhibit one or more of seven characteristics:
- have delayed enrollment into postsecondary education
- attend part time
- are financially independent of parents
- work full time while enrolled
- have dependents other than a spouse
- are a single parent
- lack a standard high school diploma.
For the purposes of this document, we will use the NCES definition of adult learner and analyze research on adult nontraditional students.
Research on Adult Learners
Much of the adult learner research has been concentrated within one of three arenas. First, a significant amount has drawn on adult development literature (Commons et al, 1996; King and Kitchener, 1994; Magolda, 1992). The adult development research has pursued a variety of issues, including adult literacy, language acquisition and motivation (Mentkowski and Associates, 2000; Wlodkowski, 1999; Sinnot, 1994), typically in the field of cognitive psychology and related areas (Smith & Pourchot, 1998). Second, the adult learner research has focused on the specific demographics, perspectives and needs of adults in continuing and postsecondary education programs (Gazette, 2002; Flannery, 2000; Brookfield, 1987; Cross, 1981, 1992; Knowles, 1978). Third, considerable research examines the adult experience in workforce development and/or vocational education (Rouse and Krueger, 2002). Traditionally interest in this topic has varied according to economic conditions, but with rapid changes in technology and norms of global industrial production, sustained attention is likely to be turned to adult development for the global workforce (Voorhees and Lingenfelter, 2003). These three strands of research form the foundation of this literature review and research on adult learning. Research attention that has led to policies shaping the progress of adult learners into and through postsecondary education will also be discussed in this review (Cook, 2004; Bailey and Mingle, 2003; Bosworth and Choitz, 2002; Hearn, 2001).
This review of the literature focuses on three primary dimensions of adult learners in postsecondary education: access, persistence, and success. Within each of these dimensions, there are four broad units of analysis: individual/family/community, institutions, state policies/collaborations, and federal policies/collaborations. The table below shows the matrix used to categorize research:
Individual/Family/Community
This dimension encompasses research on those factors that shape the success of individual adult learners, their families and communities. Research and policy literature on issues such as price sensitivity among adult learners, first generation status and adult learners, and the challenges faced by low-income adult learners can be found under the Individual/Family/Community unit of analysis within the
Access dimension. Similarly, research and policy literature on credit versus noncredit course taking patterns by adult learners, research on adult student preparation, and research on adult learners' ability to access information can be found in the Individual/Family/Community unit, under the
Persistence dimension. Research and policy literature on adult learner graduation rates, or on transitions from postsecondary education to the workforce are here categorized within the Individual/Family/Community unit, under the
Success dimension.
Institutions
Research on the availability of admissions counseling for adult learners, the transferability of credit hours, and the use of standardized tests in admissions decisions are examples that would be in the Institutions unit of analysis under the
Access dimension. Research on the availability of student services for adult learners and the services demanded by those learners, residency requirements, academic support services for adult learners, the availability of institutional aid for part-time students, and the provision of courses and degrees through continuing education would be categorized within Institutions under the
Persistence dimension. Research on career counseling services for adult learners, internship programs and university-labor market partnerships, work on institutional data management with regard to retention and graduation, and data on workforce placement of graduates would be located in the Institutions unit within the
Success dimension.
State Policies/Collaboration
Research on state policies shaping adult preparation for postsecondary enrollment, state finance of postsecondary education, cost and tuition studies, state funding for outreach, workforce training as well as state-level credit and transfer policies would be categorized within the State Policies/Collaborations unit of analysis under the
Access dimension. Research on state-level financial aid for adult learners in general and low-income adults in particular, state funding for academic support, state policies on residency and academic progress would be addressed within the State Policies/Collaborations unit and
Persistence dimension. Research and policy literature on school-to-work transitions, assessment of graduation and placement, state policies supporting workforce development and partnerships, state-supported internship and apprenticeship programs as well as research on state policies shaping graduate-level training and degree attainment would be located within State Policies/Collaborations and
Success.
Federal Policies/Collaboration
Research on national policies shaping postsecondary preparation and transfer credit with regard to adult learners, college costs, subsidy patterns, enrollment trends, workforce preparation initiatives, and industry/postsecondary collaborations would be in the Federal Policies/Collaborations under the
Access dimension. Findings on national policies shaping finance of postsecondary education by adult learners, tax and investment policies shaping employer assistance for adult learners, and national policies on continuing investments in adult learners would be placed in Federal Policies/Collaborations and the
Persistence dimension. Research and policy studies addressing the federal role in promoting employment opportunities for adult learners, assessment of job placement, federal policies supporting workforce development partnerships, federal apprenticeship programs, as well as research on federal policies shaping graduate-level training and degree attainment would be addressed within the Federal Policies/Collaborations unit and
Success dimension.
While this review of the research and policy publications will be comprehensive, an inventory of the literature is not our goal. Using the categories/dimensions, we will determine where the existing research on adult learners has been concentrated and what areas have been less often explored. Our hope is that this document will direct future research on adult learners. This will not only show us how the adult learner research arena has developed over time, but also illustrate how adult learners have been conceptually understood in the research and policy literature.
Dimension 1 - Access
Subcategory 1 - Individual
What we know about the factors that influence adult learners' individual access to postsecondary education:
- The availability of online courses and resources increases access for adult learners because it eliminates location barriers.
- The availability of financial aid increases the participation of adult learners in higher education.
- Community colleges are the most accessible for adult learners because they are the least expensive; they are more conveniently located; they offer remedial courses to better prepare adult learners for postsecondary education (an intermediate step); and they offer practical programs that tie directly to the adult workforce.
- The availability of accelerated programs increases access for adult learners who cannot invest the time and/or money for the traditional two to four-year program.
- The availability of off-campus centers eliminates location barriers for some adult learners.
- The availability of multiple and flexible class schedules (night courses, once-a-week three-hour courses, etc.) increases participation of adult learners in higher education.
- The lack of child care included within financial aid packages serves as a barrier to participation for adult learners in higher education.
- An individual's perception of his/her self efficacy factors into deciding to enter a postsecondary institution.
- An individual's perception of the social and economic value of postsecondary education influences his/her decision to enroll.
- Access into postsecondary institutions is influenced by the amount of employer support an individual may have.
- An individual's high school academic preparation influences his/her access to postsecondary education.
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Dimension 1 - Access
Subcategory 2 - Institutions
What we know about institutions that influences adult learners' individual access to postsecondary education:
- Institutions with online courses and resources expand accessibility to adult learners.
- To attract greater adult learner participation, institutions need to reevaluate their academic and student affairs programs.
- Institutions that collaborate with community organizations provide greater access for adult learners by increasing locations for courses close to their homes. In addition, this breaks down psychological barriers because individuals can envision pursuing an academic future.
- Institutions that collaborate with employers help portray the value of higher education to adult learners. In addition, this collaboration provides employer support for adults who choose to go back to school.
- Institutions that offer alternative pedagogical instruction may attract adult learners.
- Institutions that provide positive interactions between students and administrators, academic and financial-aid advisors, and instructors attract potential adult learners. In some instances, these positive interactions lead to impressions of a good school.
- Institutions need to market the programs they offer to better inform prospective adult students.
- Institutions that offer multiple and flexible class schedules (night courses, once-a-week three-hour courses, etc) and flexibility in course load may attract greater numbers of adult students.
- With the increase in adult learners to postsecondary education, "the academy is ... being transformed. Two new developments illustrate this transformation: the growing number of for-profit institutions and the emergence of corporate universities" (Bash, 2003).
- Social change has instigated greater access to higher education for a diverse population of adult learners. Ongoing research is necessary to continue promoting access to higher education for diverse populations of nontraditional students.
- Some sources suggest that institutions treat adult learners as invisible. Inflexibility with regard to transfer credits, class scheduling, and/or payment options makes it difficult for some adults to access higher education.
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Dimension 1 - Access
Subcategory 3 - State Policies
The state government's role is to lead the state's workforce development.
- States should do human-resources-needs assessments for current and potential state employers.
- States should do an assessment of workforce qualifications and the state economy's projected needs. Some states are already doing this.
- States should do a study of existing higher education providers and the economic resources available to them, with a focus on their impact on adult learners' access, persistence and success (Some are going about this and offering policy recommendations.)
- States should reexamine their financial aid programs and make them more responsive to the needs of their more diverse student populations. (Ex: Student aid is often unequal amongst students of different socioeconomic status groups and those who attend less than half time. Existing debates include whether to keep tuition rates low or let the market affect tuition, which may be offset by state and federal loans.)
- Variation in access to postsecondary education across states is related to the types of students seeking access: traditional college aged students, dependent low socioeconomic status students, dependent median-income students, nontraditional adult students, independent low socioeconomic status students, and independent median-income students .
- In most states, the range of affordable institutions for adult learners is restricted to two-year public institutions and some four-year public institutions.
- Adult learners participate in higher education at varying levels throughout the country. States with low participation rates for this group of students need to work towards improving and eliminating existing barriers.
- Lack of student academic preparation represents a barrier to postsecondary education.
- States should take leadership roles to inform the public about the importance of higher education and encourage enrollment for traditional and nontraditional students in institutions of higher education.
- For adult learners, time and scheduling constraints represent a barrier to postsecondary education. What can be done by the state to eliminate such barriers?
- States receive incentives from federal funds to increase access for adult learners in higher education.
- Access for nontraditional transfer students "can be enhanced when states encourage four-year colleges to form agreements with community colleges about accepting transfer credits and guaranteeing admission to qualified students." (Education Commission of the States, 2001)
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Dimension 1 - Access
Subcategory 4 - Federal Policies
The federal government's role is to provide financial resources to individuals and institutions to facilitate access to postsecondary education.
- Federal policies affect access to postsecondary education and the quality of higher education institutions.
- The federal government can play a leadership role in raising societal expectations for higher education. It also can encourage other stake holders, such as state governors/legislators and private sector organizations, to expand funding and plan and coordinate new postsecondary education programs.
- The federal government has played a more prominent role in expanding access to higher education during certain eras. (i.e. Morrill Act, G.I. Bill etc)
- Federal financial aid positively affects adult students' enrollment rates.
- The federal government can play a role in capacity building within the higher education arena by providing financial aid directly to students and directing policy and funding that will ultimately benefit institutions of higher education toward state governments.
- The federal government supports postsecondary education students through programs that include: WIA, TANF, The Higher Education Act (Hope Scholarship Tax Credit, Lifelong Learning Tax Credit, Pell Grants, Stafford Loans, and ITA).
- Federal policies favor high-income students and favor market choice over access. For low socioeconomic students, such policies discourage access to higher education :
- Financial aid emphasizes tax credits and loans over monetary grants or refunds
- Financial aid does not take into consideration the entire cost of being a student. For example, issues of child care and transportation are not included.
- The existing system does not provide funding for those enrolled less than half time (Hope Scholarship).
- Inflation erodes the value of financial aid over time and increases the contribution by the student
- The federal government needs to raise the level of support offered to low socioeconomic status adult learners.
- The federal government needs to focus on community colleges as they are the most affordable postsecondary education institutions. There should be a differential funding formula for these institutions that channels additional funding to rural institutions, where per student costs are higher than at urban and suburban institutions. This should include:
- support for aging infrastructure of the community colleges
- increased funding for community colleges to build up their endowments
- increased funding for community colleges for information technology, especially in rural locations.
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Dimension 2 - Persistence
Subcategory 1 - Individual
What we know about the factors that influence adult learners' individual persistence/participation to postsecondary education:
- The availability of off-campus learning centers, distance learning technologies (such as online courses), and flexible course schedules (such as evening/weekend courses) enhance adult learners' persistence by removing time and travel barriers.
- A desire for gainful employment (including higher salaries and greater job satisfaction) may compel adult students to persist. (Job satisfaction is found to be more important than money.)
- Intrinsic rewards and/or self-improvement motivate adult student persistence.
- Adult student perception of being valued by the institution influences their persistence.
- Employer understanding and support may impact adult student persistence.
- Adult students' personal characteristics and commitment affect whether they will persist in a postsecondary program.
- Social networks (family and friends) outside of the classroom positively influence adult learners' persistence.
- Transfer of prior college credit and high GPAs may positively influence adult student persistence toward a baccalaureate degree.
- An adult learner's understanding of and ability to meet the academic expectations/requirements of colleges/universities positively impacts his/her persistence.
- In the hopes of creating an environment conducive to adult-learner persistence, some colleges/universities have adopted an adult-centered approach that respects, understands, responds, and partners with individual adult learners.
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Dimension 2 - Persistence
Subcategory 2 - Institution
What we know about institutions that influences adult learners' individual persistence/participation within postsecondary education:
- Institutions aim to improve adult learner persistence by offering multiple learning options, such as:
- off-campus learning centers
- distance learning technologies
- online materials
- flexible courses (evening, weekend)
- Effective academic advisors, counselors, and adult support services all influence adult-student persistence.
- Institutions use alternative pedagogical methods to increase adult student persistence.
- Institutions that offer academic aid to under-prepared adult learners are likely to improve adult persistence.
- An adult learner's perception of his/her institution may affect his/her persistence.
- Institutions aim to establish learning communities to increase adult student persistence.
- An adult learner's ability to acquire financial aid often influences persistence.
- Institutions that teach their graduate students about the specific needs of adult learners likely enhance adult student persistence at higher education institutions where those graduate students accept employment.
- An institution's acceptance of an adult learner's transfer credits has been shown to influence student persistence.
- Institutions are taking steps to better understand and meet the needs of adult learners. In some cases, institution-wide reform has been reported as a necessary step to increase persistence among adult learners. Other reform initiatives include periodic evaluation of adult learners' academic progress.
- Accelerated delivery programs may or may not be especially influential on adult-learner persistence depending on the particular program offered and the student's ability to maintain a high GPA, manage competing demands on time, transfer previously earned credit, and obtain financial aid.
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Dimension 2 - Persistence
Subcategory 3 - State Policies
The state government's role should be to lead the state's workforce development.
- State policies on student financial aid (both state-funded loans and grants) affect adult student persistence, especially in public community colleges. (It is significant that adult, part-time and independent students were less likely to receive these grants and those they did receive were smaller than those for traditional students.)
- States should do a study of existing higher education providers and the economic resources available to them, with a focus on their impact on adult learners' persistence.
- States should reexamine their financial aid programs and make them more responsive to the needs of their more diverse student populations.
- "Persistence for nontraditional transfer students can be enhanced when states encourage four-year colleges to form agreements with community colleges about accepting transfer credits and guaranteeing admission to qualified students." (ECOS, 2001) (The Education Commission of the States reference includes a summary of legislation, agreements, awards, etc. for all fifty states with varying programs.)
- Some states are influencing their higher education institutions to include varying programs that help adult students persist.
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Dimension 2 - Persistence
Subcategory 4 - Federal Policies
The federal government's role should be to provide individuals and institutions with the appropriate financial resources to increase persistence in postsecondary education.
- Federal policies on student financial aid affect adult student persistence, especially in public community colleges.
- To counter the effects of rising tuition costs and offer equal opportunities to students of low socioeconomic status, student aid needs to be increased to that group.
- Persistence for two-year college students ("older, married, independent, and disabled" (Cofer & Somers, p. 798)) is affected by both the debt that is accrued through federal loans and student motivation.
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Dimension 3 - Success
Subcategory 1 - Individual
What we know about the factors that influence adult learners' individual educational attainment in postsecondary education:
- An adult student's personal characteristics affect whether he/she will succeed in a postsecondary program.
- Federal and other financial aid, such as the Pell Grant, has been shown to positively affect educational enrollment of adult students and could support their success as well.
- Admissions counselors who advise adult students on the appropriate courses to take positively affect their perseverance to graduation.
- Adult students' perception of being valued by the institution influences their persistence.
- Program and instruction quality impact adult students' learning outcomes.
- Faculty, counselor and administrator communication with adult students influences their persistence to graduation.
- The quest for courses that lead to professional advancement motivates adult students to complete their baccalaureate degree.
- Small class size contributes to adult students' retention in higher education.
- Family support has been shown to positively influence adult student educational outcomes.
- The availability of flexible class schedules (such as weekend courses) may increase adult learner retention in higher education.
- The lack of time available to study negatively influences adult-learner degree attainment.
- Factors that exist prior to a student's enrollment can positively influence an individual's academic performance in community college. Some of these variables include:
- Having secondary school experience that prepared them for the demands of college
- Having a high GPA in high school relative to other community college students.
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Dimension 3 - Success
Subcategory 2 - Institutions
What we know about institutions that influences adult learners' individual success in postsecondary education:
- Online learning may be considered a useful long-term strategy for institutions.
- Institutions that offer expanded services and programs specifically targeted to adult students are likely to help increase the academic success of that population.
- Adult learners describe ownership in university policy, faculty availability, small classes, programs specific to their interests and an atmosphere of caring as institutional contributors to their success.
- Institutions that show that they care about their adult students through communication with administrators, faculty and counselors may increase adult learner success. In addition, students are more likely to be successful if there is clear communication regarding course requirements and student responsibilities, as well as access to financial aid.
- Accelerated delivery programs may or may not be especially influential on adult learner success depending on the particular program offered and the student's ability to maintain a high GPA, manage competing demands on time, transfer previously earned credit, and obtain financial aid.
- Institutions that value their adult students as they do their traditional students and respect their unique needs may contribute to their academic success.
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Dimension 3 - Success
Subcategory 3 - State Policies
The state government's role should be to lead the state's workforce development.
- States should do a study of existing higher education providers and the economic resources available to them, with a focus on their impact on adult learners' educational attainment.
- States should set objectives, develop strategies, and monitor progress to support the success of adult learners.
- States should reexamine their financial aid programs and make them more responsive to the needs of their more diverse student populations.
- Some states are influencing their higher education institutions to include varying programs that help adult students succeed.
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Dimension 3 - Success
Subcategory 4 - Federal Policies
The federal government's role should be to provide individuals and institutions financial resources to facilitate educational attainment in postsecondary education.
- Federal financial aid, such as the Pell Grant, has been shown to positively affect educational enrollment of nontraditional students, including adult students, and could possibly contribute to their success in higher education as well.
- The federal government can play a role in capacity building within higher education through student financial aid, funding to the states, and the enactment of policy that benefits institutions of higher education.
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Additional Information - Foundation on Access, Persistence, and Success
Though the articles present in this section are not directly related to adult learners, they provide general information about access, persistence, and success within higher education that may be of interest.
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